Christmas recipes: cakes, cookies, roasts and festive bakes

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Nougat blancWhite honey nougat

White nougat is the most famous sweet of Montélimar in the Drôme, made with lavender honey, whisked egg white and plenty of almonds and pistachios, and it is one of the thirteen desserts on every Provençal Christmas Eve table. It needs a sugar thermometer, but no special skill. The common mistake is undercooking the syrup, so it never sets firm. Chef's tip: work quickly once the nuts are in, and press the nougat flat with an oiled sheet of baking paper.

50 min

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Insalata di rinforzoCauliflower and pickle salad

Insalata di rinforzo, the "reinforcement salad", is on every Neapolitan table from Christmas Eve to New Year. It is made in a big bowl and "reinforced" each day with more vegetables and pickles as it is eaten: boiled cauliflower, pickled peppers (papaccelle), giardiniera, black olives, capers and anchovies, dressed with olive oil and vinegar. It is served alongside the fried fish of the Vigilia. Chef's tip: boil the cauliflower until just tender, still with a little crunch; it soaks up the dressing better and won't fall apart over the days.

30 min

Italian Salads

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MendiantsChocolate nut and fruit discs

Mendiants are little discs of chocolate topped with an almond, a hazelnut, a raisin and a dried fig, the four "beggars" of the Provençal Christmas, whose colours were said to match the robes of the four mendicant orders of monks; they are part of the thirteen desserts and a favourite home-made Christmas gift. The common mistake is letting the chocolate set before adding the toppings, so they fall off. Chef's tip: pipe only six discs at a time and top them straight away.

30 min

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Nougat glacéFrozen nougat parfait

Nougat glacé is the frozen dessert of Provence, inspired by the white nougat of Montélimar: an airy parfait of whipped cream and honey meringue, studded with caramelised almonds, pistachios and candied fruit, served in slices with a red berry sauce at summer dinners. It needs no ice-cream machine. The common mistake is folding in the cream too hard, so it freezes icy instead of light. Chef's tip: take it out of the freezer 10 minutes before slicing.

50 min

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Pompe à l'huileOlive oil orange flatbread

The pompe à l'huile is the centrepiece of the thirteen desserts of Christmas Eve in Provence, a flat, slashed sweet bread made with olive oil and scented with orange-blossom water. Tradition says it must be torn by hand, never cut, or you will be ruined in the year to come, and it is eaten after the gros souper on 24 December. The common mistake is using a harsh, peppery olive oil, which overpowers it. Chef's tip: use a mild, fruity olive oil and brush more over the warm loaf.

170 min

French Baking

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Bûche de NoëlChocolate Christmas log

The bûche de Noël is the Christmas Eve and Christmas Day dessert in homes all over France, a rolled sponge filled and covered with chocolate cream and marked with a fork to look like the Yule log that families once burned through the holidays. This classic home version uses a light sponge, a chocolate ganache cream and a dusting of icing-sugar snow. The common mistake is letting the sponge cool flat, so it cracks when rolled. Chef's tip: roll it up in a clean tea towel while hot, then unroll to fill once cool; it remembers the shape.

57 min

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Nougat noirDark honey almond nougat

Nougat noir is the dark, crunchy sister of white nougat, made of just honey and almonds cooked until caramelised, and in Provence both are placed on the Christmas Eve table as part of the thirteen desserts, the white for purity and the black for the shadows. The common mistake is cooking it too far, so it tastes burnt and bitter. Chef's tip: stop as soon as the honey turns a deep amber and the almonds start to crackle.

30 min

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MostaccioliSpiced chocolate biscuits

Neapolitan Christmas trays always include mostaccioli: soft, spiced biscuits shaped like diamonds and covered in a shiny coat of dark chocolate. The dough is flavoured with honey, cocoa, orange and pisto, a Neapolitan spice mix of cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, star anise and coriander. They are made in early December with roccocò and struffoli and kept in tins for the whole holiday. Not for babies under 1 because of the honey. Chef's tip: let the biscuits rest a day before coating; spiced honey biscuits soften and their flavour deepens after a night in the tin.

50 min

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StruffoliHoney fried dough balls

No Neapolitan Christmas is complete without a plate of struffoli: hundreds of tiny balls of dough, fried until golden, then rolled in warm honey with candied orange and coloured sprinkles and piled into a wreath or a cone. Families make them in the week before Christmas, often together around the kitchen table, and give them away to neighbours. They keep for days under a cloth and are eaten with fingers or a spoon. Chef's tip: roll the ropes of dough no thicker than your little finger and cut tiny pieces, about the size of a chickpea; they puff up as they fry.

90 min

Italian Desserts

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RoccocòHard almond spice rings

Roccocò are the hardest biscuits on the Neapolitan Christmas tray, ring-shaped and studded with whole almonds, scented with orange and pisto spice. The name is said to come from the curly French "rocaille" shape. They are baked in early December, and Neapolitans dunk them in sweet wine or milk, or break them carefully, because they are famously hard on teeth. Chef's tip: bake them twice as long as you think and leave them to dry overnight; roccocò are meant to be crunchy, and they soften pleasantly after a week in the tin.

50 min

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Buccellato sicilianoFig and nut pastry ring

In Palermo and western Sicily, buccellato is the great Christmas ring: a crumbly shortcrust wrapped around a dark, sticky filling of dried figs, raisins, almonds, walnuts, orange peel, chocolate and spices, often decorated with cuts along the top and coloured sprinkles. Families start the filling days ahead and bake several rings to give away. The filling traditionally includes a splash of Marsala; use orange juice for an alcohol-free version. Chef's tip: cut slits along the top of the ring before baking; they let steam out and show off the dark filling.

95 min

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Cappon magroLayered fish and vegetable salad

Cappon magro is the grand Christmas Eve centrepiece of Genoa, once eaten by rich families on the night of "lean" eating before Christmas. On a base of gallette (ship's biscuits) rubbed with garlic and soaked with vinegar, cooks build a tall dome of boiled vegetables and white fish, held together by a rich green sauce of parsley, capers, pine nuts, anchovies and egg yolks, then decorated with prawns and mussels. It takes a whole afternoon and is served cold. Chef's tip: dress each layer of vegetables with oil and vinegar separately as you build; it seasons the whole dome evenly instead of only the outside.

150 min

Italian Fish

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CartellateFried honey pastry rosettes

In Bari and the towns of Puglia, cartellate are the Christmas sweet that families make together: thin ribbons of dough, pinched every few centimetres and rolled up into a rosette with lots of small pockets, fried, then dipped in warm vincotto, a dark, syrupy reduced grape must, or honey. The pockets fill with syrup, and they are sprinkled with cinnamon and coloured sprinkles. The dough traditionally includes a little white wine; this version gives a water and lemon option for an alcohol-free bake. Chef's tip: pinch the ribbon firmly every 3 cm before rolling; well-sealed pockets hold the syrup instead of flattening in the oil.

90 min

Italian Desserts

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Capitone frittoFried eel

Capitone, the big female eel, is the star of Christmas Eve in Naples: families buy it at the markets in Porta Nolana or the Pignasecca on 23 December and fry it the next night as part of the meatless Vigilia dinner. Eels are said to represent the serpent of Eden, and eating them is said to bring luck for the year. Ask the fishmonger to kill, clean and cut the eel for you; at home you only need to cut, flour and fry. Chef's tip: marinate the eel pieces with vinegar and bay in the fridge for an hour; the acid tightens the skin and balances the rich, fatty flesh.

45 min

Italian Fish

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RicciarelliSoft almond biscuits

Siena has been making ricciarelli since the Renaissance: soft, chewy almond biscuits in the shape of a diamond or a curved eye, with a crackled top covered in icing sugar. Sienese families buy them from the historic pasticcerie near the Campo at Christmas and serve them with a glass of Vin Santo after dinner, but they are eaten all winter with coffee. This recipe is naturally gluten free. Chef's tip: let the shaped biscuits dry at room temperature overnight before baking; a dry crust cracks beautifully in the oven while the inside stays soft.

35 min

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Goan cashew marzipan

Where Europe makes marzipan from almonds, Goa uses its own crop: cashews. Maçapão is a Portuguese legacy that Goan Catholic families make every December, pressing the cashew paste into rubber or plastic moulds of stars, flowers, fish and bells, tinted pink, green and yellow, for the Christmas kuswar tray. Ground cashews are cooked with sugar syrup and a little egg white (which gives it its smooth, pliable texture) until it leaves the pan, then kneaded, coloured and shaped. It tastes rich, sweet and buttery, softer and creamier than almond marzipan. Because of the egg white, it is vegetarian with egg rather than vegan. The common mistake is grinding the cashews too long, which releases their oil and gives a greasy, sticky paste; pulse them in short bursts. Chef's tip: when the mixture is ready, a small piece rolled between your fingers should feel like soft play dough and not stick; if it does, cook it a few minutes longer.

60 min

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Goan chana dal doceChana dal and coconut fudge

Doce de grão is one of the oldest sweets on the Goan Christmas kuswar platter, made in Catholic homes from Margao to Mapusa in the weeks before Christmas and also for weddings. Chana dal is boiled and ground with fresh coconut, then cooked with sugar in a wide pan, stirred constantly for the best part of an hour, until it turns into a thick, glossy dough that leaves the sides of the pan. Spread on a plate, cut into diamonds or pressed into small moulds, it is dense, fudgy and nutty, with a soft coconut flavour. Some families add a little ghee at the end for shine, and that makes it vegetarian rather than vegan. The usual mistake is taking it off the heat too soon: it stays sticky and never sets. Push a spoon through the middle; it is ready when the line holds and the mixture rolls into a ball. Chef's tip: grind the coconut and dal together while the dal is warm and without water; a wet paste takes twice as long to cook down.

90 min

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KulkulsSugar-glazed dough curls

No Goan or Mangalorean Catholic Christmas kuswar (sweet platter) is complete without kulkuls, the tiny ridged shells that families sit round the table rolling for hours in the week before 25 December. A soft dough of flour, coconut milk, egg and butter is pinched into small balls, pressed and rolled over the back of a fork (or a clean comb) so each curls into a ribbed shell, then fried until crisp and tossed in a white sugar glaze. They are crunchy, lightly sweet and moreish, and they keep for weeks in a tin, which is why the kuswar is shared round the neighbourhood. These contain egg: vegetarian, not vegan. The mistake everyone makes once is rolling the dough too thick, which leaves them hard and doughy inside; each should be no thicker than a coin. Chef's tip: fry on a medium-low flame until just golden; kulkuls darken a little more once out of the oil and the glaze is meant to stay white.

75 min

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BolinhasSemolina and coconut cookies

Bolinhas (small balls in Portuguese) are the cookies Goan Catholic families bake in batches for the Christmas kuswar, the tins of sweets sent to friends and neighbours in Panjim and Salcete in mid-December. Fresh coconut is cooked briefly in a sugar syrup, mixed with semolina and left overnight so the grains soften, then bound with butter and egg yolks, shaped into small balls, marked with a fork or a cross and baked until golden. The texture is sandy and crumbly outside with a chewy coconut centre, and they smell of cardamom and browned butter. They contain egg yolk, so they are vegetarian with egg, not vegan. The common mistake is baking them the same day: unsoaked semolina stays gritty and the cookies spread. Chef's tip: shape with slightly damp hands and keep them small, about 3 cm; they puff a little and need room on the tray.

55 min

Indian Baking

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PeradGuava cheese

Goan grandmothers make perad when the guava trees are full in winter, and it sits in a tin on the dresser all through Christmas, cut into dark pink squares for the kuswar plate. The name and the method come from the Portuguese goiabada: ripe guavas are cooked, sieved, then boiled down with sugar and lime juice for the best part of an hour until the paste is thick, glossy and comes away from the pan in one mass. Set in a tray, it slices cleanly and tastes intensely of guava, sweet and slightly tart, with a chewy, jelly-like bite. Eat it on its own, with a piece of cheese, or on bread. The common mistake is stopping too early: it looks thick in the pan but stays soft and sticky once cool. Test a little on a cold plate; it should hold its shape and peel off cleanly. Chef's tip: choose fragrant pink-fleshed guavas and add a couple of slightly under-ripe ones; they carry more pectin and help it set.

95 min

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KusliSemolina-filled Diwali pastries

Kusli are the crimped half-moon pastries that fill tins in Chhattisgarhi homes before Diwali and Chhath, close cousins of the gujiya and karanji but filled with semolina roasted in ghee, dry coconut and sugar rather than mawa. They keep for a fortnight and are handed to visitors with thethri and khurmi. The common mistake is frying them in very hot oil; they blister and brown outside while the pastry stays raw within. Chef's tip: seal the edges with a dab of milk and a firm pinch-and-fold twist so not a crumb of filling leaks into the oil.

75 min

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Pan de jamónChristmas ham bread

Caracas bakeries start taking orders for pan de jamón in early December, and families set it on the Christmas table beside the hallacas: a soft, slightly sweet bread rolled around cooked ham and smoked bacon (both pork), green olives and raisins, glazed with panela syrup. Each slice shows a spiral of salty and sweet. The common mistake is rolling loosely, which leaves gaps in the spiral. Chef's tip: roll it as tightly as you can, pressing as you go, and seal the seam well before it proves.

170 min

Venezuelan Baking

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Frozen Christmas pudding

In the heat of an Australian December, many families swap the steamed pudding for a frozen one, ice cream packed with fruit, nuts and chocolate and set in a pudding basin so it still looks the part on the Christmas table in Brisbane or Perth. It is made days ahead and turned out just before serving. A common mistake is letting the ice cream melt too much while mixing, which makes it icy when refrozen; soften it only until stirrable. Chef's tip: soak the fruit in orange juice the night before so it stays soft when frozen.

30 min

Australian Desserts

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White ChristmasPuffed rice and coconut slice

White Christmas is an Australian Christmas tradition from the days when a hot December made baking a misery, a no-bake slice of puffed rice, dried fruit, glacé cherries and coconut set in white chocolate or coconut fat. It is cut into squares and kept in the fridge for drop-in visitors through the holidays. A common mistake is overheating the white chocolate, which seizes; melt it gently. Chef's tip: red and green glacé cherries make it look festive.

20 min

Australian Desserts

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Bollito mistoMixed boiled meats

In Piedmont, bollito misto is the great winter feast, served from November to carnival in Turin trattorias and on family tables when there are many to feed. Several cuts of beef, a chicken and a cotechino (a soft, rich pork sausage) poach gently in one big pot until tender, then come to the table sliced on a warm platter with a sharp parsley and caper salsa verde; the broth is saved for soup or risotto the next day. The usual mistake is letting the pot boil hard: the meat turns stringy and the broth cloudy, so keep it at a bare shiver. Serve with boiled potatoes or mostarda if you like. Chef's tip: put the beef into water that is already boiling so its juices stay in the meat, and use cold water only if the broth matters more to you than the meat.

240 min

Italian Meat

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Glazed Christmas ham

A whole glazed leg ham is the centrepiece of the Australian Christmas table, served cold with salads and mustard on a hot December day and eaten in sandwiches for a week after Boxing Day. It is a cured, smoked leg of pork, already cooked, that is scored, studded with cloves and baked with a sticky orange and honey glaze. A common mistake is cutting the rind off too roughly; ease it away with your fingers so the fat stays smooth. Chef's tip: store the leftover ham in a cotton ham bag soaked in water and vinegar in the fridge to keep it moist.

120 min

Australian Meat

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NeureosCoconut and jaggery pastries

No Goan Catholic kuswar, the tray of Christmas sweets sent to neighbours, is complete without neureos, little crimped half-moons of crisp pastry stuffed with fresh coconut cooked down with jaggery, cardamom and a few raisins or cashews. Families gather in the week before Christmas to roll, fill and pinch them by the hundred, and they keep well in a tin until New Year. The common mistake is a wet filling: if the coconut mix is still moist when sealed the pastries burst in the oil, so cook it until it leaves the pan and cool it fully. Chef's tip: use a fluted pastry wheel to trim the edge after crimping, which gives the classic frilly finish and a tighter seal.

75 min

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LussekatterSaffron buns

Before dawn on 13 December, Lucia Day, children in white gowns walk through Swedish homes, schools and offices carrying candles and trays of lussekatter: golden saffron buns twisted into an S with a raisin in each curl. The saffron colour and the light are meant to chase away the darkest days of winter. A common mistake is adding the saffron dry, which leaves the buns pale and streaky. Chef's tip: grind the saffron with a sugar cube and melt it into the warm butter and milk, so the colour spreads evenly.

72 minScandinavian Baking

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VánočkaBraided Christmas bread

On Czech Christmas Eve morning, before the carp and the potato salad, the table holds a long golden vánočka, a sweet braided loaf whose layered plaits are said to represent the baby Jesus in swaddling. Families slice it for breakfast through the holidays with butter, honey or jam. The crumb is soft and rich with egg and butter, scented with lemon zest and studded with raisins; flaked almonds crisp up on the crust. The usual slip is braiding too loosely, so the tiers slide apart in the oven; plait tightly and hold them with wooden skewers while baking. Soaking raisins in warm water (not rum) keeps them juicy and alcohol-free. Chef's tip: vánočka keeps for days wrapped in a cloth, and slightly stale slices make superb French toast.

185 min

Czech Baking

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Gurian Christmas pie

On Christmas Eve, 6 January, kitchens across Guria, around Ozurgeti and Lanchkhuti, smell of baking ghvezeli: large crescent pies stuffed with fresh cheese and chunks of boiled egg, their shape said to recall the crescent moon. They are baked in batches, carried to relatives and eaten through the holidays with tea. A common mistake is overfilling, which makes the crescent split at the seam in the oven. Chef's tip: let the yeasted dough rise once, shape the pies, then give them 15 minutes more so they puff into soft, rounded crescents. Imeruli and sulguni usually use animal rennet; look for vegetarian ones.

70 min

Georgian Baking

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Pozsonyi kifliWalnut or poppy seed crescents

These little crescents take their name from Pozsony, the Hungarian name for Bratislava, where bakers made them famous in the nineteenth century, and today they fill Christmas cookie tins across Hungary alongside bejgli. A short, buttery yeast dough is wrapped around a walnut or poppy seed filling, then glazed first with yolk and then with white, which gives the shiny, crackled, marbled top that marks a good batch. They are rich but not too sweet: eat them with coffee or tea through the holidays. Where most people go wrong is letting the dough rise in a warm spot; this is a cold dough, and if it gets warm the butter melts and the kifli split open. Chef's tip: let the yolk glaze dry fully before the white goes on, or you will not get the crackle.

120 min

Hungarian Baking

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GozinakiWalnut and honey diamonds

Gozinaki is the sweet every Georgian family makes for New Year's Eve, from Tbilisi flats to Kakhetian farmhouses: toasted walnuts stirred into honey boiled until thick, spread on a wet board and cut into diamonds that set glossy and crunchy. Children help shell the walnuts in December, and a plate of gozinaki sits on the table for the midnight toasts. A common mistake is taking the honey off too early; it stays sticky and the pieces never set. Chef's tip: cook the honey until a drop in cold water forms a firm, pliable ball, then work fast, because the mixture sets as it cools.

30 min

Georgian Desserts

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Mákos gubaPoppy seed and bread roll pudding

On 24 December, after the fish soup and before the presents, many Hungarian families bring a dish of mákos guba to the table, because poppy seed is said to bring plenty in the year ahead. Stale crescent rolls (kifli) are sliced, soaked in warm vanilla milk, layered with sugared ground poppy seed and baked until the top crisps, so the inside is soft and puddingy while the edges turn crunchy. It is simple, very cheap and loved by children; serve it warm, with vanilla custard poured over if you want it richer. Older recipes pour honey over it instead of sugar. A common mistake is drowning the bread, which turns it to porridge; it should be moist but still hold its shape. Chef's tip: grind the poppy seed fresh in a coffee grinder, as pre-ground poppy goes bitter quickly.

40 min

Hungarian Desserts

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ČesnicaChristmas bread with a coin

On Serbian Orthodox Christmas morning, 7 January, the family stands around the table and breaks the česnica between them, turning the round loaf three times before everyone pulls off a piece. Whoever finds the coin hidden in the bread is said to have luck for the year. Recipes vary from flaky layered pies to this soft, slightly sweet yeasted loaf with a twisted rope round its edge, lovely with kajmak, cheese and the rest of the Christmas spread. Wrap the coin well and tell everyone before they bite, and keep an eye on small children, as a coin is a choking risk. The usual slip is rushing the rise in a cold kitchen, which gives a dense, heavy crumb; find a warm spot and wait until the dough has truly doubled. Chef's tip: brush the hot loaf with a little oil as it leaves the oven for a soft, shiny crust.

120 minBalkan Breads & Parathas

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BreudherBurgher Christmas loaf

On Christmas morning in Dutch Burgher homes from Colombo to Galle, the breakfast table holds a tall, fluted breudher, the island's take on the Dutch Christmas loaf, sliced thick, spread with butter and topped with a slice of Edam. The dough is enriched with plenty of butter, eggs and sugar and studded with raisins, and the crumb is soft, golden and slightly sweet, closer to brioche than to bread. Old recipes leavened it with fermented palm toddy; this version uses ordinary yeast, so there is no alcohol. Edam is normally made with animal rennet, so choose a vegetarian Edam or Gouda if that matters to you. The most frequent failure is an impatient rise, which gives a heavy, close loaf, because butter-rich dough moves slowly; wait until it has truly doubled. Chef's tip: work the butter in a little at a time only after the dough has been kneaded smooth, and it will turn silky and elastic instead of greasy.

85 min

Sri Lankan Baking

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Sri Lankan love cake

Love cake is the Burgher Christmas and birthday cake, a legacy of Portuguese rule shaped by Sri Lankan spice gardens, and Colombo families argue happily over whose grandmother's recipe is best. Roasted semolina, butter and a huge quantity of whisked egg yolks and sugar are folded with chopped cashews, pumpkin preserve, rosewater, cardamom, cinnamon and nutmeg, then baked slowly so the top forms a crisp, sugary crust while the inside stays moist, dense and almost chewy. It is cut into small squares because it is very rich, and served with tea or packed into little boxes for guests. A common mistake is baking until a skewer comes out completely clean, which leaves it dry; the centre should still be slightly sticky. Pumpkin preserve (puhul dosi) is sold in Sri Lankan shops; candied winter melon, sold as petha, is the closest substitute. Chef's tip: make it two days ahead, as the spices and rosewater deepen as the cake rests.

110 min

Sri Lankan Baking

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BibikkanCoconut jaggery cake

Bibikkan is the darkest, stickiest cake in the Sri Lankan repertoire, baked by Burgher families for Christmas and by Sinhala households for the New Year table, and nobody quite agrees whether its roots lie in Portuguese or local kitchens. Freshly grated coconut is first cooked in melted kithul jaggery, then mixed with roasted semolina, flour, eggs, cashews, raisins, chopped ginger preserve and a mix of cinnamon, cardamom, nutmeg and cloves, and baked until almost black on the outside. The crumb is moist, heavy and chewy with coconut, with a deep treacle sweetness and a warm, spiced finish, and slices are served with tea. Baking it too hot is where it often goes wrong, as the jaggery burns before the middle sets, so keep the oven moderate and cover it if the top darkens early. Chef's tip: cook the coconut in the jaggery until it looks thick and sticky before mixing; that is what gives bibikkan its fudgy texture.

90 min

Sri Lankan Baking

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SiemieniotkaHemp seed and buckwheat soup

Hardly anyone outside Silesia has tasted it, but in villages around Racibórz and Opole siemieniotka is still the first dish on the Wigilia table, ladled out before the carp and the poppy-seed sweets. Hemp seeds are simmered, crushed and strained with onion into a pale, creamy, gently nutty soup, then poured over a spoon of buckwheat groats in each bowl. Use only food-grade hemp seeds from a health food shop. Where most people go wrong is skipping the straining, which leaves the soup gritty with shell. Chef's tip: toast the seeds in a dry pan for a minute before simmering to deepen the nutty flavour.

90 min

Polish Soups

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Śledź po kaszubskuHerring in sweet-sour tomato sauce

Kashubian fishing families along the Baltic coast and the lakes near Kartuzy always kept a crock of herring in the cellar, and this layered version, with a thick sweet-and-sour sauce of slow-fried onion and tomato, is now a fixture of the Christmas Eve table across Pomerania. Mild salted fillets sit between spoonfuls of the soft, glossy sauce, and after a night in the fridge the two flavours merge into something savoury, tangy and gently spiced. Eat it cold with boiled potatoes or rye bread. Herring like this is cured but never cooked, so buy ready-salted or matjes fillets from a good fishmonger, keep them chilled, and note it is not for pregnant women, young children or anyone with a weakened immune system. Pouring the sauce on while hot is a mistake: it partly cooks the fish and turns it grey and soft. Chef's tip: taste a corner of a fillet before soaking; mild matjes need only a short rinse, while barrel-salted herring needs hours.

40 min

Polish Fish

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Roast goose with apples

On 11 November, St Martin's Day and Poland's Independence Day, roast goose comes back to tables from Poznań to Gdańsk, and Pomeranian and Kujawy farms still raise their own white geese for it. The bird is rubbed with marjoram, garlic and salt, left overnight in the fridge, then stuffed with sharp apples and roasted slowly so the fat renders out and the skin turns crisp and mahogany. The meat is dark and rich, the apples collapse into a tart sauce. Serve with braised red cabbage, potato dumplings and the pan juices. Most people forget to drain the fat as it roasts, and the bird ends up frying in its own puddle; pour it off every half hour and save it for roast potatoes. Allow an extra night for the marinade. Chef's tip: prick the skin all over, especially under the wings and thighs, without piercing the meat, so the fat has somewhere to escape.

240 min

Polish Meat

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Fried Christmas carp

For many Polish families, Wigilia, the meatless Christmas Eve supper, is not complete without fried carp, bought live from market tanks in mid-December or, more often today, cleaned and cut into steaks at the fishmonger. The steaks are salted, floured and fried until the skin crisps and the white flesh turns sweet and juicy. Serve with boiled potatoes, sauerkraut with peas, or simply bread and a lemon wedge, after the beetroot barszcz. Keeping a scale from the Christmas carp in your wallet is said to bring money all year. Carp has a reputation for tasting muddy, and the usual culprit is skipping the salting and resting time. Ask the fishmonger to score the steaks finely so the small Y-shaped bones soften as they fry. Chef's tip: salt the steaks and leave them in the fridge for 20 minutes, then pat completely dry; the flesh firms up and the flour clings in a thin, even crust.

40 min

Polish Fish

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Ryba po greckuFish under sweet-sour vegetables

Ryba po grecku, 'Greek-style fish', has no Greek roots at all; it is a Polish invention from the communist years, when cheap frozen cod and pollock met carrot, parsley root and tomato purée to make a festive dish out of very little. Today it sits on almost every Christmas Eve table and at name-day buffets, served cold. Pieces of fried white fish disappear under a thick, orange layer of soft vegetables stewed in tomato with allspice and bay, sweet and tangy at once. It needs a night in the fridge for the vegetable sauce to soak into the fish. The usual slip is grating the vegetables too fine, which turns them to mush; use the coarse side of the grater or cut thin matchsticks. Chef's tip: let the fish and the vegetables cool before layering, then chill; it tastes better on day two and keeps for three days.

60 min

Polish Fish

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FafernuchyHoney and carrot Christmas cookies

Old Masurian and Warmian households baked fafernuchy weeks before Christmas and kept them in tins, where they slowly mellowed; children found them in their stockings and on the Christmas plate. They are small, hard, pebble-like biscuits, sweetened with honey and given a gentle colour and moisture from finely grated carrot, with a little spice in some homes. Expect a proper crunch, made for dunking in tea. A common mistake is expecting them to be soft straight from the oven; they are meant to be firm and soften only a little in the tin. Chef's tip: grate the carrot on the finest side of the grater so the dough stays smooth and holds its shape.

60 min

Polish Baking

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Christmas mushroom soup

In many Polish homes the Christmas Eve supper opens with either beetroot barszcz or this soup, and families argue about which is better. Dried porcini picked and threaded on strings in September are soaked and simmered with root vegetables into a clear, deep-brown broth with a smoky, almost meaty depth, then served with thin noodles or łazanki. It is fully meat-free, as Wigilia tradition requires, and kept dairy-free here. A common mistake is pouring the soaking water in with its grit; let it settle and leave the last spoonfuls behind. Chef's tip: soak the mushrooms overnight in cold water and cook them in that water for the most flavour.

90 min

Polish Soups

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Cabbage with peas

Of the twelve dishes on a Polish Christmas Eve table, this is the humblest and often the one people go back to for seconds. Sour, tangy sauerkraut is braised slowly with yellow split peas until the peas collapse into a soft, savoury mash that binds the cabbage, with dried mushrooms and golden onion for depth. Serve it warm next to pierogi or potatoes, and know that it tastes even better reheated the next day. The usual slip is adding salt before the peas are cooked, which keeps them hard; season only at the end, as the sauerkraut is salty anyway. Chef's tip: if your sauerkraut is very sour, rinse it once and squeeze it, keeping a little juice to adjust the sharpness later.

90 min

Polish Vegetarian

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Kluski z makiemNoodles with sweet poppy seed

Poppy seed is the taste of a Polish Christmas Eve, and in central and eastern Poland it often reaches the table as a bowl of wide noodles in a sweet, dark poppy mixture with honey, walnuts and raisins. It sounds strange to anyone who expects pasta to be savoury, but it is closer to a pudding: nutty, slightly bitter, sticky with honey, eaten at room temperature as the last dish of the night. Where most people go wrong is using whole poppy seeds straight from the packet; they must be scalded and ground, or the dish is gritty and bland. Chef's tip: buy ready-ground poppy seed or grind scalded seeds twice in a spice grinder until they turn grey and buttery.

45 min

Polish Desserts

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JulskinkaChristmas glazed ham

Julskinka, the Christmas ham, is the centrepiece of the Swedish julbord: a lightly cured pork leg poached slowly, then brushed with a glaze of mustard and egg, scattered with breadcrumbs and browned in the oven. This is a pork dish. Swedish families cook it a few days before Christmas Eve and eat it cold in thin slices with mustard, and the cooking broth is used for 'dopp i grytan', dipping bread into the broth on Christmas Eve. Use a mild cured gammon. A common mistake is boiling it hard, which makes the meat stringy. Chef's tip: keep the water at a bare tremble, about 85 °C, and take it out when the centre reaches 71 °C; it stays juicy.

230 minScandinavian Meat

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LutfiskLye-cured cod with white sauce

Lutfisk, lutefisk in Norway, is dried cod or ling soaked in water and lye for days until it swells into a soft, jelly-like fish, then rinsed and baked or steamed and eaten at Christmas with white sauce, peas, boiled potatoes, allspice and, in Norway, bacon fat. It divides families, loved by some, avoided by others. Lye is caustic, so never cure it at home; buy ready-soaked lutfisk from Scandinavian shops and fishmongers in December. A common mistake is cooking it in an aluminium dish, which reacts and discolours it. Chef's tip: salt the fish and leave it for 15 minutes before baking; it draws out water and keeps the flakes firm. It is done when it is opaque and flakes.

60 minScandinavian Fish

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PinnekjøttSteamed salted lamb ribs

Pinnekjøtt, 'stick meat', is the Christmas Eve dinner of western Norway: lamb ribs that have been salted and dried, sometimes smoked, soaked in water for a day, then steamed for hours over a lattice of birch sticks until tender and juicy. It is served with kålrabistappe, boiled potatoes and the cooking juices. The ribs are bought ready-cured in Norwegian shops in December. A common mistake is letting the pot boil dry; check the water every half hour. Chef's tip: finish the steamed ribs under a hot grill for a few minutes to crisp the fat.

195 minScandinavian Meat

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CougnouChristmas brioche

Cougnou, also called cougnolle or bommetje, is the Christmas bread of Wallonia, given to children on Christmas morning: a soft brioche shaped like the infant Jesus in swaddling clothes, with a little clay or sugar medallion pressed into the middle, eaten with hot chocolate. Bakeries in Namur and Charleroi make them from early December. A common mistake is shaping them too small, which dries them in the oven. Chef's tip: make three balls, one large for the body and two small for the head and feet, pressed together tightly so they bake as one.

65 min

Belgian Baking

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LaufabrauðCarved fried leaf bread

Laufabrauð, 'leaf bread', is made by Icelandic families together in early December: paper-thin rounds of dough are carved into lacy geometric patterns with a small knife or a brass cutting wheel, then fried in seconds until crisp and golden. Each family has its own patterns, and the breads are eaten at Christmas with butter and smoked lamb. It is a tradition from northern Iceland around Akureyri, where flour was scarce. A common mistake is rolling the dough too thick; it should be so thin you can read through it. Chef's tip: make a fold, cut little V-shapes along it with a knife, and fold every other point back, which gives the classic leaf pattern.

90 minScandinavian Breads & Parathas

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GrittibänzSweet bread man

On 6 December, Samichlaus Day, bakeries across German-speaking Switzerland fill their windows with Grittibänz: little men of soft, sweet Zopf-style dough with raisin eyes and buttons, sometimes a pipe or a scarf, given to children with mandarins, nuts and gingerbread. Families shape them together at home, and every one comes out different. A common mistake is making the arms and legs too thin; they burn before the body bakes. Chef's tip: make the figures chunky and snip the arms and legs with scissors rather than rolling them separately, so the shape holds as it rises.

65 min

Swiss Baking

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BrunsliChocolate almond biscuits

Brunsli are the dark, chewy Christmas biscuits of Basel, one of the 'Basler Weihnachtsguetzli' along with Läckerli and Zimtsterne: ground almonds, sugar, dark chocolate, cinnamon and cloves bound with egg white, rolled out on sugar and cut into hearts, stars and clovers, then dried overnight and baked briefly so they stay soft inside. They are flourless. A common mistake is baking them too long, which turns them hard. Chef's tip: leave the cut shapes to dry overnight at room temperature; they form a thin crust and keep their sharp shape in the oven. Use a dairy-free chocolate to keep them dairy-free.

40 min

Swiss Baking

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Trinidad pastellesCornmeal parcels with spiced meat

Trinidad's Venezuelan-rooted pastelles are a Christmas ritual: families gather in the kitchen, press thin cornmeal dough onto banana leaves, spoon on a filling of minced beef and pork with olives, capers and raisins, then fold and steam dozens at a time to freeze for the season. Once cooked they are soft, savoury and slightly sweet, with the leaf perfuming the dough. This version uses beef and pork mince; a lentil filling makes a vegetarian pastelle. The most common mistake is pressing the dough too thick, which turns the parcels stodgy; it should be thin enough to see the leaf's shine through. Chef's tip: pass the banana leaves over a flame for a few seconds until they turn glossy and pliable, so they fold without tearing.

150 min

Trinidadian Meat

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Puerto Rican pastelesPork-filled green banana parcels

Making pasteles is a December production line in Puerto Rican homes, from Orocovis in the mountains to the Bronx: one person grates, one seasons, one spreads masa on plantain leaves and someone else ties the strings, and dozens go into the freezer for Nochebuena. The masa is grated green banana, yautía and a little calabaza coloured with annatto oil; the filling is diced pork shoulder stewed with sofrito, olives, capers and chickpeas. Each parcel is boiled until the masa sets into a soft, savoury pudding. The common mistake is spreading the masa too thick, which leaves a raw, gummy centre. For a vegetarian version, fill them with chickpeas and diced vegetables stewed in the same sauce. Chef's tip: grate the roots on the finest side of the grater (or blitz them with a little of the annatto oil) for the smooth, silky masa that marks a good pastel.

240 min

Puerto Rican Meat

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PepparkakorThin gingerbread biscuits

Pepparkakor, pepperkaker in Norway, are the thin, snappy spiced biscuits of the Scandinavian Christmas, cut into hearts, stars and pigs, hung on trees and eaten with glögg and blue cheese. Families make the dough in early December and bake through Advent; Swedish tradition says if you break a biscuit into three pieces with a press of your finger, you may make a wish. A common mistake is rolling the dough thick, which makes soft biscuits. Chef's tip: rest the dough overnight in the fridge, then roll it paper-thin, 2 mm, between sheets of baking paper.

60 minScandinavian Baking

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FlæskestegRoast pork with crackling

Flæskesteg is the Danish Christmas Eve roast: a pork loin or belly with its rind scored deep, rubbed with salt and bay, and roasted until the crackling puffs into crisp, golden ridges. This is a pork dish. It is served with brunede kartofler, red cabbage, plain boiled potatoes and gravy, and the crackling is the prize everyone fights over. A common mistake is scoring the rind too shallow or not all the way across, so it cracks unevenly. Chef's tip: start the joint rind-down in a little boiling water for 20 minutes, which softens the rind, then turn it up and roast; it crackles evenly. Whole pork joints are safe at 63 °C followed by a 15-minute rest.

140 minScandinavian Meat

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HangikjötSmoked lamb with white sauce

Hangikjöt, 'hung meat', is the Icelandic Christmas Day dinner: lamb or mutton smoked over birch or dried sheep dung, then simmered slowly and served hot or cold with potatoes in white sauce (uppstúfur), green peas, red cabbage and laufabrauð or flatkökur. Icelanders buy it ready-smoked in December; it is cooked at home. A common mistake is boiling it hard, which toughens the meat and makes it too salty. Chef's tip: let it cool in its cooking water; the meat stays juicy and absorbs back some of the flavour.

130 minScandinavian Meat

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Brunede kartoflerCaramelised small potatoes

No Danish Christmas Eve dinner is complete without brunede kartofler beside the roast pork or duck: small boiled potatoes rolled in golden caramel and butter until they are glossy, sweet and salty. Families boil the potatoes the day before so they are firm and dry. A common mistake is adding wet potatoes to the caramel; it seizes and splatters. Chef's tip: melt the sugar alone until amber, then add the butter, and roll cold, dry potatoes in it over a medium heat until coated.

40 minScandinavian Sides

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VínartertaLayered cardamom prune cake

Vínarterta, 'Vienna cake', is the Icelandic Christmas cake: six or seven thin layers of cardamom-scented biscuit dough sandwiched with thick prune jam spiced with cinnamon and cardamom, then left to mature for a few days before slicing into narrow strips. It is still baked by Icelandic families in Reykjavík and by the descendants of Icelanders in Manitoba, where it became a symbol of home. A common mistake is slicing it the same day; the layers are crisp until the jam softens them. Chef's tip: wrap it and leave it for 3 days in a cool place, so the biscuit softens into a fine cake.

110 minScandinavian Baking

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RosolliBeetroot and potato salad

Rosolli is the jewel-coloured salad on the Finnish Christmas Eve table: diced cooked beetroot, carrot and potato with pickled cucumber, apple and onion, arranged in neat stripes or mixed together, with a dressing of whipped cream tinted pink with beetroot juice and sharpened with vinegar. Pickled herring is sometimes added; this version keeps it vegetarian. A common mistake is mixing the beetroot in early, which stains everything a muddy pink. Chef's tip: arrange the vegetables in rows on a platter and serve the dressing on the side, so each stays its own colour.

60 minScandinavian Salads

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SpitzbubenJam-filled butter biscuits

Spitzbuben, 'rascals', are the jam-filled sandwich biscuits Swiss families bake every December: two thin, crumbly butter biscuits, the top one with a little window cut in it, stuck together with raspberry or redcurrant jam so it shines through, and dusted with icing sugar. They are made by the tin-load for Christmas and keep well. A common mistake is rolling the dough too thick, which makes heavy, doughy biscuits. Chef's tip: chill the dough well and roll it 3 mm thick between sheets of baking paper; dust the tops with icing sugar before sandwiching so the jam window stays clean.

50 min

Swiss Baking

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LanttulaatikkoBaked swede casserole

Lanttulaatikko is one of the 'laatikot', the oven casseroles that crowd the Finnish Christmas table beside the ham: swede boiled and mashed with cream, breadcrumbs, dark syrup, egg and nutmeg, then baked slowly until the top is deep brown and the inside is sweet and soft. Families make it days ahead because it tastes better reheated. A common mistake is baking it too hot, which burns the top before the casserole sets. Chef's tip: bake at a low heat for a long time, and make a crisscross pattern on top with a spoon so the syrup caramelises in the ridges.

120 minScandinavian Sides

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Arroz con dulceCoconut rice pudding

From the start of December to the Three Kings in January, trays of arroz con dulce cool on Puerto Rican kitchen counters, sliced into squares and handed round at parrandas when carollers arrive at the door late at night. Unlike a milky rice pudding, it is cooked in a water steeped with fresh ginger, cinnamon, cloves and star anise, then finished with coconut milk and raisins, so it is fragrant, firm enough to cut and dairy free. The common mistake is adding the sugar too early, which keeps the rice grains hard; sweeten only once they are soft. Chef's tip: soak the rice for an hour first, and it cooks evenly and absorbs the spiced coconut far better.

120 min

Puerto Rican Desserts

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JoulutorttuPrune jam pastry stars

Joulutortut, the star-shaped Christmas tarts of Finland, appear in every home and café in December, piled on plates with glögi: squares of puff pastry cut at the corners and folded into a pinwheel around a spoon of thick prune jam, baked golden and dusted with icing sugar. A common mistake is using thin, runny jam, which bubbles out and burns. Chef's tip: cook the prune jam until very thick, and press the folded points down firmly with a dab of water so the stars don't spring open in the oven.

40 minScandinavian Baking

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RisgrynsgrötChristmas rice porridge

Risgrynsgröt is the creamy rice porridge Swedes eat on Christmas Eve, either at breakfast or after the julbord, with cinnamon, sugar and cold milk; one whole almond is hidden in the pot, and whoever finds it will marry in the coming year, or simply gets a prize. Leftovers become ris à la Malta with whipped cream and oranges. A common mistake is cooking it on a high heat, which scorches the milk. Chef's tip: start the rice in water to soften, then add the milk and let it cook very gently, with a cinnamon stick, until thick and creamy.

65 minScandinavian Desserts

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Bajan jug jugPigeon peas and salt meat mash

Jug jug belongs to Christmas in Barbados, served alongside baked ham and roast pork on the big lunch table: green pigeon peas and salted beef and salted pork, cooked tender and minced, then stirred with guinea corn (sorghum) flour, herbs and onion into a thick, savoury, mouldable mash. Its roots are often traced to Scottish settlers' haggis and West African grain cookery, and it tastes rich, salty and herby. The common mistake is not soaking the salt meats long enough, which makes the whole pot too salty to eat; soak them overnight in plenty of water. Cook until the minced meat mixture is piping hot (71 °C) throughout. Chef's tip: stir in the sorghum flour a spoonful at a time while the pot bubbles, like making polenta, so it never turns lumpy.

180 min

Bajan Meat

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Tamales oaxaqueñosTamales with black mole and chicken

In Oaxaca, tamales are wrapped in banana leaves rather than corn husks, which makes them flat, square and very moist, with a faint grassy scent from the leaf. These are the classic version filled with mole negro and shredded chicken, sold from steaming pots at morning markets and made by the dozen for Christmas, Candlemas on 2 February and the Day of the Dead. The masa is beaten with pork lard, which gives the traditional light, rich texture; vegetable shortening works if you avoid pork. Use leftover mole negro, or a simplified mole made from good ready-made paste thinned with broth. Eat them with hot chocolate or atole. Chef's tip: keep a coin in the bottom of the steamer; when it stops rattling, the water has run low and needs topping up.

135 min

Mexican Chicken

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Bolo-reiCandied fruit and nut king cake

From early December to Twelfth Night every Lisbon pastelaria stacks its counter with these glossy rings, crowned with candied fruit and sugar, and families buy one for Christmas Eve and another for the Day of the Kings. A Lisbon confectioner brought the idea from France in the nineteenth century and it became the centre of the Portuguese Christmas table. Traditionally the raisins are soaked in port wine, which contains alcohol; orange juice works just as well. Old recipes hid a dried broad bean inside, and whoever found it bought next year's cake; we leave it out, as it is a choking hazard for children. Chef's tip: let the dough rise slowly in a cool place, even overnight in the fridge; the rich, buttery dough needs time to taste of anything.

95 min

Portuguese Baking

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Canelons de Sant EsteveCannelloni with roast meat and béchamel

This contains pork (pork shoulder). On 26 December, Sant Esteve, Catalan families gather again and eat canelons, made from the meats left over from Christmas Day's carn d'olla or the roast. Rolled in pasta sheets, covered in béchamel and grated cheese and baked until bubbling, they are the reason many people say Sant Esteve is the better of the two feasts. This version cooks the meats from scratch, so you can make it any time. Cheeses like parmesan use animal rennet. Chef's tip: mince the meat finely and cook it down until it is moist but not wet, or the canelons go soggy.

150 min

Spanish Pasta & Noodles

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Mazapán de ToledoAlmond marzipan figures

Toledo's convents have shaped marzipan for centuries, and in December the city's pastry shops fill their windows with coiled eels, half-moons and little figures, glazed golden and sold by weight for Christmas. Toledo's version is firm and almond-rich, with less sugar than many, and the best is made with Marcona almonds. Chef's tip: let the shaped pieces dry, uncovered, overnight before glazing; they hold their shape and the glaze sets glossy instead of soaking in.

50 min

Spanish Desserts

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Bredele: Alsatian cinnamon stars

From the start of Advent, kitchens across Alsace turn out bredele, dozens of kinds of little Christmas biscuits kept in tins and offered to every visitor until New Year, while the markets in Strasbourg and Kaysersberg sell them by the bag. Cinnamon stars are among the most loved: chewy almond and cinnamon biscuits with a crisp white meringue top, and no flour at all. They take patience rather than skill and keep for weeks, so families make them early in December. The same dough also works rolled into small balls. Chef's tip: spread the meringue on the rolled sheet before you cut the stars, rather than icing each biscuit; it is far quicker and gives a clean, sharp edge.

57 min

French Baking

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Brie de Meaux in puff pastry

Meaux, east of Paris, has made Brie since the Middle Ages, and the town's cheese fair still crowns the 'queen of cheeses' each year. Baking a small Brie in puff pastry with honey and nuts is a favourite of Île-de-France home cooks for drinks parties, Christmas Eve and New Year: the pastry goes crisp and golden while the cheese inside turns into a warm, flowing sauce for dipping bread and apple slices. A small 500 g Brie or a thick wedge works better than a huge wheel. Brie de Meaux is made with animal rennet, so choose a vegetarian Brie for a vegetarian table. Chef's tip: rest it for 10 minutes after baking; cut at once, the cheese floods out and the pastry goes soggy.

45 min

French Snacks & Starters

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Pain d'épices de DijonHoney spice loaf

Dijon has been baking pain d'épices since the Middle Ages, and the shops near the old ducal palace still sell it by the slice, plain or glazed with orange. It is a dense, fragrant honey loaf, sold all year but eaten most in December, when Burgundian families toast slices for breakfast, spread them with butter, or serve them with cheese and pears. The Dijon style uses wheat flour and a whole egg, which makes it softer than the rye-flour loaves of Reims. Chef's tip: wrap it and wait a day before cutting; the crumb turns moist and the spices settle and deepen.

75 min

French Baking

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Turrón de JijonaSoft almond and honey nougat

The hill town of Jijona (Xixona) in Alicante has been grinding almonds and honey into turrón for centuries, and its soft, beige, slightly oily bars are on almost every Spanish table between Christmas Eve and Twelfth Night. Unlike hard Alicante turrón, Jijona turrón is a smooth almond paste that crumbles and melts in the mouth, deeply nutty with a floral sweetness from the honey. A common mistake is under-toasting the almonds; pale almonds give a bland, grey paste, so take them to a light, even gold. This version uses honey and egg white, so it is vegetarian but not vegan. Chef's tip: press the warm paste into its mould under a weight and leave it a full two days before slicing; it firms up and the oil settles evenly through it.

50 min

Spanish Desserts

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Pan dulceChristmas fruit bread

No Argentine Christmas Eve table is complete without a pan dulce, set out at midnight with turrón, nuts and a cold cider for the adults. The bread is the River Plate take on Genoese pandolce and Milanese panettone: a tall, buttery yeast dough scented with orange blossom and lemon, packed with candied fruit, raisins and walnuts. The crumb is closer and moister than panettone, and it keeps for a week wrapped in a cloth. Allow a long day, as the dough has a sponge and two rises. Some bakers soak the fruit in rum or sweet wine; here it is soaked in orange juice, so the bread is alcohol-free. People often add the fruit at the start of kneading, which shreds the gluten and gives a heavy, sunken loaf; work it in only once the dough is silky. Chef's tip: bake it in a tall paper mould or a 16 cm tin lined with a collar of baking paper, and turn it upside down onto a rack for the first 20 minutes of cooling so the top does not sink.

295 min

Argentinian Baking

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BaumkuchenLayered tree cake

Baumkuchen is the king of German cakes, and the little town of Salzwedel in Saxony-Anhalt has baked it on a turning spit over an open flame for two centuries; in December, Baumkuchenspitzen, chocolate-dipped triangles of it, fill the shelves before Christmas. Without a spit you can build it at home in a tin under the grill, one thin layer at a time, and each slice shows the golden rings of a tree. The mistake people make is spreading the batter too thickly, which gives fewer, stodgy layers that cook unevenly; aim for 2 tablespoons at a time. Chef's tip: stand by the oven; each layer turns from pale to burnt within a minute once it browns.

110 min

German Baking

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DominosteineGingerbread, jelly and marzipan cubes

Dominosteine were invented in Dresden in the 1930s as an affordable Christmas treat and are still bought by the box across Germany through December: a cube of soft gingerbread, a layer of tart fruit jelly and a layer of marzipan, all coated in dark chocolate. Homemade ones are fresher and less sweet than the boxed kind and make a beautiful gift. The jelly is set with pectin, not gelatine, so they suit vegetarians. The mistake people often make is cutting the slab while the jelly is still soft, which smears the layers; leave it overnight. Chef's tip: trim the edges of the slab before cutting so every cube has three clean, sharp stripes.

75 min

German Desserts

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PfeffernüsseHoney spice biscuits

Pfeffernüsse are small domed biscuits baked in German homes through Advent, especially in the north and in Saxony, and sold in bags at Christmas markets everywhere. They are made with honey and a warm spice mix, and in old recipes the 'pepper' in the name meant exotic spices in general, though a pinch of real black pepper adds a lovely bite. A thin white glaze sets crisp over a chewy centre. The mistake many people make is eating them straight away; they are hard at first and need a few days in a tin with a slice of apple to soften. Chef's tip: warm the honey only until runny, never boiling, or the biscuits turn tough.

35 min

German Baking

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VanillekipferlVanilla almond crescents

No Austrian Christmas cookie tin is complete without Vanillekipferl, the pale little crescents that melt on the tongue; Viennese grandmothers bake them by the hundred in early December, and they are just as loved over the border in Bavaria. The dough is short and rich with butter and ground almonds, and the crescents are rolled in vanilla sugar while still warm so it sticks. The common mistake is overbaking: they should stay pale with only the tips turning golden, or they lose their tender, sandy texture. Chef's tip: chill the dough well and shape it with cool hands; warm dough cracks and the crescents spread in the oven.

42 min

Austrian Baking

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Heiße MaronenRoasted chestnuts

From late October the Maronibrater set up their black drum ovens on street corners in Vienna, Salzburg and every German Christmas market, and the smoky smell of roasting chestnuts means winter has properly begun. Hot chestnuts in a paper cone warm your hands first and your stomach second. At home a hot oven and a bowl of water give the same soft, sweet, slightly charred result. The commonest mistake is not scoring the shells deeply enough: steam builds up inside and the chestnuts can burst in the oven. Chef's tip: wrap the roasted chestnuts in a tea towel for 5 minutes before peeling; the steam loosens the bitter inner skin so it comes away with the shell.

40 min

German Snacks & Starters

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Gebrannte MandelnCinnamon-sugar roasted almonds

Gebrannte Mandeln are the warm paper cone you carry round a German Christmas market, from Munich's Marienplatz to the Striezelmarkt in Dresden, the stalls stirring copper kettles of almonds until the sugar crackles. At home they take one pan and twenty minutes, and a jar makes a good December gift. The sugar goes through three stages: syrup, then dry and sandy, then melted again into a shiny crust. The mistake most people make is giving up at the sandy stage, when it looks ruined; keep stirring and it melts back into a coating. Chef's tip: spread the almonds out on baking paper the second they are done and separate them with two forks, or they cool into one big brittle.

20 min

German Snacks & Starters

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Cork spiced beefSpiced pressed brisket

Spiced beef is the Christmas meat of Cork city, sold in the English Market in December and served cold in thin slices on St Stephen's Day with brown bread and chutney. A piece of brisket or silverside is rubbed with salt, brown sugar, allspice, cloves and juniper and turned in the fridge for a week, then simmered slowly and pressed. The meat comes out deep pink, tender and fragrant. Chef's tip: keep it in the fridge the whole week of curing and turn it every day so the cure reaches every side.

270 min

Irish Meat

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Beef Wellington

Beef Wellington is the grand centrepiece of British Christmas and celebration dinners, a whole beef fillet coated in finely chopped mushroom duxelles, wrapped in thin pancakes or ham and golden puff pastry, then sliced at the table to show a pink middle. It is linked, without much proof, to the Duke of Wellington. This version wraps the fillet in crêpes instead of the usual Parma ham. The duxelles is deglazed with a splash of white wine, which contains alcohol; use a little stock for an alcohol-free version. Chef's tip: chill the wrapped fillet before it goes in the pastry so everything stays tight and the base doesn't go soggy.

105 min

British Meat

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Mince pies

Mince pies are handed round with mulled drinks at every English Christmas gathering, from carol services to office parties, and children leave one out for Father Christmas. The mincemeat once held meat; this home-made version is all fruit, apple and spice, with vegetarian suet, and brandy is optional, so it can be alcohol-free. Chef's tip: make the mincemeat a week ahead so the flavours mellow; it keeps for months.

60 min

British Baking

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Christmas pudding

The Christmas pudding is the dark, fruit-packed pudding that ends Christmas dinner in English homes, traditionally mixed on Stir-up Sunday in late November when every family member stirs and makes a wish. This one uses vegetarian suet and is soaked with brandy or stout, so it contains alcohol; for an alcohol-free pudding use the same amount of strong black tea or orange juice. It is set alight at the table with warmed brandy (skip that for alcohol-free) and served with brandy butter or custard. Chef's tip: steam it again for 2 hours on the day; the second steaming darkens and enriches it.

520 min

British Desserts

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VasilopitaNew Year orange cake

Just after midnight on New Year's Eve, or at lunch on 1 January, the head of a Greek household crosses the vasilopita with a knife and cuts slices in strict order: for Christ, for the house, then for each person from oldest to youngest. Whoever finds the foil-wrapped coin has luck for the year. This Athenian-style version is a tall, fluffy orange cake, dusted with icing sugar with the new year's numbers stencilled on top. Common mistake: slicing it warm, which makes the crumb gummy and drags the coin around. Chef's tip: beat the butter and sugar until almost white and fold the whipped whites in by hand; that is where the light, cottony crumb comes from.

80 min

Greek Baking

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KourabiedesAlmond butter cookies

Snow-white kourabiedes are piled into pyramids at Greek Christmas, New Year and christenings, and in Macedonia they are handed out at weddings, so guests leave with sugar on their clothes. The crumb is short and sandy from well-whipped butter and toasted almonds, with a whisper of rose or orange-blossom water. Common mistake: dusting with icing sugar while the cookies are still hot, which melts into a paste instead of a soft coat. Chef's tip: beat the butter for a full 10 minutes until almost white; the air you whip in is what makes them melt in the mouth.

55 min

Greek Baking

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MelomakaronaHoney-dipped spice cookies

From early December, bakeries and kitchens all over Greece fill tins with melomakarona, the oval cookies that sit beside kourabiedes on every Christmas table and get handed to visitors with coffee. The dough is made with olive oil and orange juice rather than butter, scented with cinnamon and clove, then baked and plunged into warm honey syrup so the inside turns soft and sticky while the edges stay crisp. Common mistake: dipping hot cookies into hot syrup, which turns them to mush; one of the two must be cool. Chef's tip: mix the dough only until it comes together; overworking it squeezes out the oil and the cookies bake hard and greasy.

70 min

Greek Baking

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Broas de melSpiced molasses biscuits

Alongside bolo de mel, every Madeiran Christmas table has a tin of broas de mel: small, round, dark biscuits made with the same sugarcane molasses and spices, crisp at the edge and slightly chewy inside. Children are given them when they go door to door on the Missas do Parto mornings before Christmas, and they are good dunked in coffee or tea. Chef's tip: chill the dough for half an hour before shaping; molasses dough is sticky when warm.

40 min

Portuguese Baking

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Bolo de mel da MadeiraSpiced molasses cake with nuts

Madeiran families bake bolo de mel on 8 December so it can mellow in time for Christmas, and a well-wrapped one is said to keep until the following year. It is dense, almost black and fragrant with cinnamon, clove and aniseed, sweetened with mel de cana, the island's sugarcane molasses, and studded with walnuts, almonds and candied peel. Tradition says it should be broken by hand, never cut with a knife. Many old recipes use some lard; this one uses butter only. Chef's tip: wrap it in foil and wait at least a week before eating; the spices and molasses soften and blend as it rests.

90 min

Portuguese Baking

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PestiñosAnise fritters in honey

When Holy Week and Christmas come round, convent turnstiles and village kitchens from Cádiz to Granada fill trays with pestiños: little folded parcels of dough flavoured with sesame, anise and orange, fried until crisp and blistered and then dipped in honey. The dough traditionally takes a splash of white wine, which makes it bubble and crunch; orange juice works too, and is the alcohol-free option in the list. A common mistake is frying them in oil that is too hot, which browns the outside before the folds of dough cook through and crisp. Chef's tip: roll the dough really thin; thick pestiños stay doughy in the middle and soak up oil.

70 min

Spanish Desserts

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Tamal tolimenseBanana-leaf pork and chicken tamal

Ibagué and the towns of Tolima make the most generous tamal in Colombia, and on Sunday mornings it is unwrapped at the table with hot chocolate, a slab of bread or arepa and a cup of black coffee. Inside the double banana-leaf wrapping sits a soft, achiote-tinted corn dough layered with rice, yellow peas, carrot, potato, a hard-boiled egg and chunks of pork rib, pork belly and chicken that cook through during the long steam. Expect a savoury, moist parcel that smells of the leaves; plus overnight soaking for the dried peas and marinating the meat. It is weekend project food, best made with friends on a production line. A frequent failure is a loose wrap: water gets in and the dough turns soggy, so fold tightly and tie firmly in a cross. Chef's tip: steam a test tamal first or check one after 3 hours; the meat inside must be cooked through, and if the dough still sticks to the leaf, give the batch 20 minutes more.

320 min

Colombian Meat

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Panforte di SienaSpiced honey and nut cake

Siena has been making panforte since the Middle Ages, when spices arriving along the pilgrim road made it a luxury of apothecaries and convents; today the city's pastry shops stack it in paper-wrapped discs, especially for Christmas. It is more confection than cake: toasted almonds and hazelnuts, candied orange and citron, a little flour and cocoa, all bound with hot honey and sugar syrup and fragrant with cinnamon, coriander, clove and pepper. The texture is chewy and nutty, cut in thin wedges with coffee. Chef's tip: work fast once the syrup is in; the mixture stiffens in a minute or two, so have the tin lined and your hands wet.

70 min

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FrustingoFig, nut and cocoa cake

In the Marche, from Ancona down to Ascoli Piceno, frustingo is the dark, dense Christmas cake every family makes its own way, born as a thrifty sweet of dried figs, nuts and stale bread. Chopped figs are soaked and simmered, then mixed with walnuts, almonds, raisins, candied peel, cocoa and coffee, and bound with sapa, the thick cooked grape must of the region. Many recipes also add mistrà, a local aniseed liqueur; this one uses ground anise seed for an alcohol-free cake. It bakes into a fudgy, almost black slab, rich with spice and not too sweet. Chef's tip: let it mature for two days in foil before cutting; it slices cleanly and the flavours come together.

90 min

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Pandolce genoveseRaisin and pine nut cake

No Genoese Christmas table is complete without a round, domed pandolce, traditionally topped with a sprig of bay and cut by the youngest at the table while the eldest serves. The low, quick version made here, pandolce basso, is raised with baking powder rather than days of yeast, so it bakes into a crumbly, buttery cake between shortbread and fruit loaf. Raisins, pine nuts, candied orange and a scattering of fennel seed give each bite a sweet, faintly aniseed taste, and orange flower water perfumes it. Chef's tip: keep it wrapped for two days before cutting; the crumb softens and the fennel and orange flavours deepen.

75 min

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Presnitz triestinoSpiced fruit puff pastry spiral

Trieste's pastry shops, many of them founded in the Habsburg years, sell presnitz all year but above all at Easter, when it sits on the table next to the sweet Easter breads. Unlike the yeasted gubana from inland Friuli, it is made from flaky puff pastry rolled thin around a long rope of nuts, dried fruit, chocolate and spice, then coiled into a flat spiral and baked crisp. Slices shatter into buttery flakes around a dense, aromatic centre. The filling is traditionally soaked in rum; orange juice is a good alcohol-free swap. Chef's tip: use all-butter puff pastry and check the label, since some brands use non-vegetarian fats.

120 min

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Gubana friulanaNut and raisin pastry spiral

Gubana comes from Cividale del Friuli and the Natisone valleys on the Slovenian border, where it is baked for Easter, weddings and christenings and shared in slices from a coiled round loaf. A soft, sweet yeast dough is rolled around a dark filling of walnuts, raisins, pine nuts and candied peel, then curled up like a snail shell so each slice shows a spiral. Locals often splash a little grappa or plum brandy over each slice and the filling is usually laced with it too; orange juice works in its place for an alcohol-free gubana. Chef's tip: bake it a day ahead, wrapped well, as the filling grows moister and spicier overnight.

180 min